[TL;DR]

• Blockchain technology can address the vulnerabilities and trust issues inherent in centralized systems by offering transparency, immutability, and decentralization in public services.
• Wallet-as-a-Service (WaaS) abstracts the complexities of blockchain technology, making various public services such as digital identity management, electronic voting, and welfare services more accessible.
• The combination of blockchain and WaaS is transforming the paradigm of public services through initiatives like smart cities and citizen-led governance, but a balanced approach considering technical limitations and practical constraints is necessary.
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1. Challenges of Modern Public Services

1.1. Vulnerabilities and Lack of Trust in Centralized Systems

Modern public services rely heavily on centralized systems, exposing multiple vulnerabilities. Data concentrated in central servers is inherently susceptible to hacking and system failures, which can lead to severe information leaks or service disruptions. In recent years, several data breaches involving public institutions have occurred domestically, resulting in a significant decline in public trust toward public services.

Another issue inherent to centralized systems is the concentration of power and information. When excessive authority is granted to a specific agency or administrator, the potential for corruption and abuse of power increases. Cases of public data manipulation and unauthorized access are consistently reported, seriously damaging the trust relationship between the government and its citizens.

Centralized systems also cause information asymmetry. Since public institutions manage all information monopolistically, citizens find it difficult to know precisely how their data is processed and utilized. This lack of transparency leads to distrust, which ultimately lowers the quality and efficiency of public services.

Particularly, trust issues become even more critical in vital processes such as elections or major national policy decisions. Doubts about the stability and fairness of voting systems pose risks that could undermine the very foundation of democracy. The current centralized systems have clear limitations in fully eliminating such concerns.

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1.2. Inefficiencies and Bureaucracy in Administrative Processes

The administrative processes in South Korea still remain complicated and time-consuming in many areas. Due to paperwork-driven procedures, lack of collaboration between departments, and redundant tasks, citizens often have to visit multiple agencies or go through complicated procedures even for simple civil complaints.

Although the introduction of e-government systems has brought some improvements, many administrative procedures are still unnecessarily complex and time-consuming. Since independent systems are operated separately by each ministry and agency, information sharing remains insufficient, causing citizens to repeatedly submit the same information. This results in not only citizen inconvenience but also waste of administrative resources and inefficiency.

Furthermore, the bureaucratic culture acts as a barrier to swift decision-making and innovation. Decision-making driven by risk avoidance, rigid application of regulations, and hierarchical organizational structures make it difficult to respond quickly to the changing demands of society. In the era of digital transformation, such rigidity has become a major obstacle to improving the quality of public services.

Another critical issue is the lack of transparency in administrative processes. Citizens often find it difficult to track the progress of their complaints or applications in real-time, or to know when they will be processed. This lack of transparency increases dissatisfaction and distrust toward administrative services.
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1.3. Data Management Issues and Threats to Personal Information Security

The massive amount of data handled by the public sector requires proper management and protection. However, the current system exposes several data management problems. Decentralized databases, non-standardized data formats, and redundant storage hinder the consistency and accuracy of data.

An even more serious problem is the threat to personal information security. In cases where sensitive personal information such as resident registration numbers, financial information, and medical records are leaked, citizens can suffer severe damages. Recent large-scale personal information leaks clearly illustrate the security vulnerabilities of the current systems.

The lack of clear regulations regarding the ownership and utilization of public data is also a significant issue. Without transparent information about how citizens' data is used and who it is shared with, it is difficult to build trust in data-driven public services.

The data management problem is not merely technical. It also involves a lack of legal and institutional frameworks, low awareness of data ethics, and a shortage of professional personnel. Unless these complex issues are addressed, the development of data-driven public services will inevitably remain limited.
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1.4. Limitations in Citizen Participation and Accessibility

Citizen participation is an essential element of modern democratic societies, but current public service systems show limitations in actively encouraging citizen engagement. The decision-making process remains closed, and channels for gathering citizens' opinions are limited, resulting in inadequate reflection of public voices in policy-making and service improvement.

Despite the advancement of digital technologies, accessibility issues in public services still persist. Particularly, senior citizens, people with disabilities, and digitally marginalized groups face difficulties in using online-based public services, leading to inequality in access to information and services.

Moreover, current systems focus on one-way service provision, limiting opportunities for citizens to actively participate or collaborate. Citizens are often regarded merely as consumers of services rather than partners who can contribute to service improvement or problem-solving.

Such limitations in participation ultimately result in public services failing to meet the real needs and demands of citizens. To achieve citizen-centered service design and delivery, a shift toward a more open and participatory system is necessary.
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2. Solutions Through Blockchain

2.1. Core Characteristics of Blockchain: Transparency, Immutability, and Decentralization

Blockchain is being recognized as an innovative alternative capable of addressing the fundamental issues of public services. Its core features—transparency, immutability, and decentralization—can play a significant role in overcoming the limitations of existing public systems.

Transparency is one of blockchain’s most important features. All transactions and data recorded on a blockchain network are openly available to all participants. When applied to public services, this transparency can make administrative processes and decision-making procedures visible to citizens, allowing them to easily monitor and understand government activities. For example, by recording public fund expenditures or policy-making processes on the blockchain, anyone can verify the information, helping to prevent corruption and strengthen public sector accountability.

Immutability means that once data is recorded, it cannot be altered or deleted. Information stored on the blockchain is protected through cryptographic technologies, making forgery or tampering practically impossible. This characteristic is vital for ensuring the reliability of public records. Storing critical records such as land registries, resident registrations, and election results on the blockchain guarantees data integrity, significantly reducing the risks of manipulation or error.

Decentralization refers to a system where the network participants collectively operate and manage the system, rather than relying on a single central authority. This eliminates single points of failure and prevents power concentration. Applying decentralization principles to public services can prevent abuse of authority by specific administrators or agencies and enhance the stability and trustworthiness of systems. Moreover, involving multiple stakeholders in system operation can help establish a more democratic and inclusive governance model.

The combination of these features makes blockchain a powerful tool for building trust in public services. It enables secure and transparent transactions and information exchange without relying on a trusted third party, holding the potential to fundamentally reshape the relationship between governments and citizens.
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2.2. Mechanisms for Addressing Existing Public System Issues

Blockchain provides effective mechanisms to solve various problems faced by public services.

First, blockchain addresses the vulnerability issues of centralized systems through distributed ledger technology. Since data is stored across multiple nodes rather than a single server, the system is more resilient against hacking and system failures. Even if a specific node is attacked or experiences errors, the entire network remains operational, ensuring data security. This greatly improves the continuity and stability of public services.

In addition, blockchain’s smart contract functionality can help resolve inefficiencies and bureaucratic issues in administrative processes. Smart contracts are programs that automatically execute transactions or procedures when predefined conditions are met, without the need for intermediaries. For example, administrative tasks such as subsidy payments, permit processing, and tax refunds can be implemented using smart contracts, significantly reducing processing time and minimizing the potential for human error or misconduct.

Blockchain also offers powerful solutions for data management and personal information security. Its encryption technologies and access control mechanisms enable secure protection of personal information while allowing necessary information sharing. Advanced cryptographic methods such as zero-knowledge proofs enable verification and authentication without exposing personal information. This approach achieves the dual goals of protecting privacy and facilitating data utilization.

Blockchain can also play a critical role in enhancing citizen participation and accessibility. Blockchain-based voting systems offer secure and transparent platforms for citizens to participate directly in democratic processes. Blockchain-based community governance models allow citizens to participate in policy-making and resource allocation, helping to realize participatory governance where citizens’ voices are genuinely reflected.
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2.3. Principles for Building Trust-Based Governance

Blockchain proposes a new paradigm for building trust-based governance that goes beyond mere technological innovation. It moves away from traditional reliance on centralized authority and institutional trust, building trust based on cryptographic proof and decentralized consensus mechanisms.

The first principle of blockchain-based governance is “trust through code.” In a blockchain system, trust is not placed in individuals or institutions, but in mathematical algorithms and cryptographic technologies. Regardless of a specific party's intentions or actions, the system operates transparently and fairly. Applying this principle to public services enables citizens to verify the fairness and reliability of services without relying on the goodwill of government officials.

The second principle is “decentralized accountability.” In blockchain networks, multiple participants jointly verify and maintain the system. This decentralized validation structure enables mutual monitoring and checks, enhancing accountability. In the public sector, enabling various agencies, civic groups, and citizens to verify public data and processes can significantly increase transparency and accountability.

The third principle is “participatory consensus.” Blockchain provides mechanisms where network participants can jointly make decisions through various consensus algorithms. This participatory consensus model can be applied to public decision-making processes, enabling more democratic and inclusive policymaking. By allowing citizens to directly propose opinions and participate in voting, the legitimacy and acceptance of policies can be enhanced.

The fourth principle is “programmable governance.” By implementing rules and procedures through smart contracts, consistent rule enforcement and automated execution become possible. This prevents the abuse of administrative discretion and contributes to providing predictable and fair public services. For example, implementing eligibility criteria and payment procedures for social security benefits through smart contracts ensures that all eligible citizens receive benefits under the same standards without discrimination.

These trust-based governance principles can redefine the relationship between governments and citizens and contribute to building a more transparent and participatory public service model.
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2.4. Cases of Administrative Efficiency Through Blockchain Adoption

Blockchain has already been piloted by several countries and local governments to improve administrative efficiency, showing positive results.

In the field of public document management, blockchain-based electronic certification systems have emerged as noteworthy cases. To address the forgery vulnerabilities and complex verification procedures associated with paper documents or traditional electronic documents, several countries have introduced blockchain-based systems for issuing and verifying public documents. These systems have significantly reduced issuance costs and time, enabling safe document sharing and verification without concerns over forgery.

Another notable case is enhancing transparency in public procurement processes. Public procurement is known to be vulnerable to corruption. By applying blockchain, the entire process—from bidding to contract signing and payment—can be transparently recorded and tracked, helping to prevent misconduct. Some local governments have already piloted blockchain-based procurement systems and confirmed the effects of reducing administrative costs and improving transparency.

Blockchain’s effectiveness has also been proven in the delivery of welfare services. It is being used to prevent duplicate or fraudulent claims for welfare benefits and to ensure that support is provided swiftly to those in actual need. In particular, cases where blockchain was used for disaster relief funds or emergency aid payments received positive evaluations for enabling transparent fund management and rapid delivery.

Applying blockchain to land and real estate registry systems has also garnered attention. Countries adopting blockchain-based land registry systems have seen improvements in transparency and efficiency of real estate transactions and a reduction in ownership disputes. Processing times for registrations have been significantly shortened, and incidents of real estate fraud and disputes have decreased.

These cases demonstrate that blockchain can contribute to real improvements in efficiency and transparency across various areas of public services. Although technical and institutional challenges still exist, these pioneering cases validate the potential and applicability of blockchain in the public sector.
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3. Public Service Models Based on Blockchain and WaaS

3.1. The Concept of WaaS (Wallet-as-a-Service) and Its Application to Public Services

Wallet-as-a-Service (WaaS) is a solution that provides digital wallet functions in a service model, allowing institutions and companies to utilize secure and efficient digital asset management without the burden of building and maintaining their own blockchain wallet infrastructure. WaaS offers core wallet functionalities—such as user authentication, key management, transaction signing, and asset custody—through APIs, enabling seamless integration into various services.

In the public sector, WaaS enables several innovative applications. First, it allows for the construction of citizen-centric digital identity management systems. Each citizen can securely store credentials, licenses, and proof of identity within their digital wallet and present them as needed. WaaS abstracts the complexities of encryption processes and private key management, providing these functions in a user-friendly manner.

Moreover, WaaS enables the tokenization and management of digital assets in public services. For instance, local governments can issue tokenized forms of regional currencies, welfare points, or carbon credits, and citizens can receive and use these tokens through their digital wallets. WaaS platforms offer infrastructure for the entire lifecycle of digital assets, including issuance, transfer, and burning.

Another important application of WaaS is certification and signing services. Public institutions can verify the validity of documents and certificates through blockchain, and citizens can perform electronic signatures via their digital wallets. This greatly reduces the inefficiencies of paper-based administration and enables secure document handling without forgery risks.

The key advantage of introducing WaaS into public services lies in abstracting the technological complexity. Blockchain and cryptographic technologies may seem difficult for ordinary users and administrative staff, but WaaS hides these complexities and provides easy-to-use interfaces. This allows citizens and officials without technical expertise to easily use blockchain-based services.
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3.2. Digital Identity Management and Citizen-Centric Service Platforms

A digital identity management system combining blockchain and WaaS can fundamentally transform the paradigm of public services. Unlike conventional centralized identity verification systems, blockchain-based systems introduce the concept of Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI), enabling citizens to have control over their personal information.

In SSI systems, individuals store their identity information in digital wallets and selectively disclose only the necessary information as needed. For example, a person can verify adulthood for purchasing alcohol without disclosing their exact date of birth, or prove eligibility for public services without exposing other personal data. This realizes the "minimum disclosure principle," strengthening personal data protection.

WaaS platforms play a crucial role in implementing such Self-Sovereign Identity systems. They abstract complex encryption processes and blockchain interactions, allowing citizens to easily manage their digital identities. They also provide a secure environment where various verifiable credentials issued by institutions such as governments, schools, and hospitals can be safely stored and managed.

Based on such a digital identity management system, a citizen-centric service platform can be established. On this platform, personalized services can be provided according to each citizen’s needs and circumstances. For instance, citizens eligible for certain welfare benefits can automatically receive related information and application methods, and easily apply using digital identity verification without repeatedly submitting supporting documents.

Another important aspect of a citizen-centric service platform is transparent management of service usage history and personal data. Through blockchain, citizens can verify when, why, and how their data has been used, and can withdraw consent for data usage if necessary. This is an important step toward realizing "data sovereignty," enabling citizens to control their data while efficiently using necessary public services.
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3.3. Electronic Voting and Decision-Making Systems

Blockchain and WaaS can bring revolutionary changes to voting and decision-making systems, which are core processes of democracy. Existing voting systems have shown limitations in transparency, security, and accessibility, but blockchain-based voting systems have the potential to effectively solve these issues.

The key to blockchain-based electronic voting systems is transparency and verifiability. All voting records are encrypted and stored on the blockchain, making them tamper-proof, and anyone can verify the results. At the same time, using advanced cryptographic techniques like zero-knowledge proofs, it is possible to keep individual votes confidential while ensuring the accuracy of the overall tally.

WaaS platforms are essential tools that allow ordinary citizens to easily access and use such electronic voting systems. Citizens can safely participate in voting through their digital wallets without needing an understanding of blockchain technology, and verify that their votes have been correctly recorded. WaaS also simplifies identity verification and voting eligibility checks, ensuring that only legitimate voters participate.

Blockchain-based voting systems can be applied not only to national elections but also to various scales and forms of decision-making processes. They can be used for local referendums, community decisions, participatory budgeting, and other citizen participation processes, enabling the realization of direct democracy.

A particularly notable application is the implementation of delegated voting systems. Citizens can delegate their voting rights on specific issues to others with expertise, combining the advantages of direct and representative democracy. Blockchain and smart contracts can manage and execute these complex delegation relationships securely and transparently.

Blockchain-based voting systems can also contribute to improving voter turnout. Citizens can participate in voting without time or geographic constraints, and the simplification of the voting process lowers participation barriers. This is especially beneficial for overseas residents, citizens with mobility difficulties, and those too busy to visit polling stations.
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3.4. Welfare Services and Securing Transparency in Public Funds

Blockchain and WaaS can revolutionize welfare service delivery systems and enable transparent management of public funds. The current welfare system faces problems such as complex eligibility verification, duplicate benefits, and administrative inefficiencies, while public fund management often lacks transparency and traceability.

The core of blockchain-based welfare services is automated eligibility verification and payment through smart contracts. When predefined conditions (e.g., income level, family composition, age) are met, smart contracts automatically execute payments to the eligible citizens. This minimizes administrative delays and removes human errors or biases, ensuring fair and efficient welfare service delivery.

WaaS platforms provide environments where citizens can securely receive and manage welfare benefits in the form of digital tokens or points. Citizens can directly manage their benefits through their digital wallets and use them for designated purposes (e.g., food, healthcare, education), ensuring intended use while maintaining autonomy and convenience.

Blockchain’s transparency and traceability are particularly valuable for managing public funds. Every flow of funds—from budget allocation to expenditure—can be recorded on the blockchain and openly verified, preventing the misuse or misappropriation of public money. Citizens can monitor in real-time how their taxes are spent, leading to improved trust in government.

Furthermore, blockchain can be applied to transparently manage donations and international aid funds. Donors can track how their donations are used, and beneficiaries can receive support directly without intermediaries. This improves transparency in donation processes, reduces administrative costs, and enhances the effectiveness of international aid.
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4. Future Outlook: The Era of New Governance

4.1. Paradigm Shift in Public Services Driven by Blockchain and WaaS

The advancement of blockchain and WaaS is expected to drive a fundamental paradigm shift in public services. This change will go beyond mere technological advancements, influencing the relationship between governments and citizens, the methods of public service delivery, and the very essence of governance.

One of the most notable changes is the rise of the "Government as a Service (GaaS)" concept. Traditionally, governments have acted as authoritative, unilateral service providers, but under blockchain-based systems, governments can evolve into platform providers. Governments would provide basic infrastructure and regulations, while various stakeholders collaborate on these platforms to co-create public services. This represents a critical transformation, redefining the government’s role from a "ruler" to a "facilitator."

Furthermore, the concept of a "Programmable Government" is expected to materialize. Laws and policies can be implemented in the form of smart contracts, allowing for automated and consistent enforcement of regulations and administrative procedures. For example, if tax policies are implemented through smart contracts, tax calculation and payment processes can be automated, ensuring that the same rules apply equally to all taxpayers. This innovation can simultaneously enhance the efficiency and fairness of administration.

A new approach to data sovereignty and personal information protection will also be a major change. In current centralized systems, governments collect and manage citizens’ data, but in blockchain-based systems, citizens will have control over their own data. Through Self-Sovereign Identity systems, citizens will decide what data to disclose, to whom, and for what purpose. This model seeks to find a balance between data protection and data utilization.

Significant changes are also anticipated in public financial management. Blockchain’s transparency and traceability allow every step of budget execution to be publicly disclosed and monitored by citizens in real time. Furthermore, combining blockchain with participatory budgeting models could enable citizens to directly participate in budget allocation and verify its execution, leading to the emergence of a completely new model of financial democracy.

The development of WaaS will serve as a catalyst accelerating these changes. By lowering technological barriers and improving user experience, more citizens can participate in blockchain-based public services. Especially by offering intuitive interfaces and improving accessibility for digitally marginalized groups, a digitally inclusive public service ecosystem can be established where all citizens can enjoy the benefits.
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4.2. Realizing Citizen-Led Governance and Participatory Democracy

Blockchain and WaaS are expected to accelerate the realization of citizen-led governance and participatory democracy by expanding opportunities for citizens to participate directly and substantially in public decision-making processes.

Blockchain-based voting and decision-making systems can significantly lower barriers to citizen participation. Citizens can participate without time or location constraints, and the transparency and integrity of the results will be ensured, improving trust in the voting process. This will enable not only higher voter turnout but also more frequent and diverse forms of citizen participation. National referendums on major policies, community votes on local issues, and online public hearings could all become everyday occurrences.

Citizen proposals and policy co-production can also be further activated through blockchain. Citizens can propose solutions to public issues and gain support from others to elevate proposals into policy agendas. Blockchain can track the origin and revision history of these proposals, enabling the recognition and rewarding of intellectual contributions. This could foster creative and diverse solutions to complex social issues by harnessing "collective intelligence."

Moreover, blockchain-based community governance models can support the autonomous decision-making and resource management of local communities and interest-based groups. Various forms of communities—such as housing cooperatives, energy communities, and cultural organizations—can build transparent and democratic operational systems through blockchain. These small-scale governance experiments can serve as "testbeds" for new democratic models, and successful cases can be scaled to larger public governance structures.

The spread of citizen-led governance represents a fundamental shift in the "state-citizen" relationship. Citizens are no longer passive recipients of services but active co-creators of public value. This transformation is expected to enhance government legitimacy, policy acceptance, and strengthen social trust and cohesion.
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4.3. Integrated Public Service Ecosystems Linked to Smart Cities

Blockchain and WaaS, when combined with smart city infrastructure, have the potential to build a completely new dimension of integrated public service ecosystems. When blockchain converges with technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and big data, it is expected to bring transformative changes to urban operations and citizens' daily lives.

The complementary integration of digital twins and blockchain can revolutionize smart city governance. Digital twins precisely replicate a city’s physical infrastructure and systems in virtual environments, enabling real-time monitoring and simulation. Blockchain plays a critical role by ensuring the reliability and integrity of the massive amount of data generated by digital twins. Information collected from IoT sensors and various data sources can be securely recorded on the blockchain, establishing a trustworthy foundation for urban management without data tampering.

For example, in city-wide water management systems, digital twins can model real-time conditions of water quality, quantity, and drainage systems, while blockchain verifies and securely stores this data. This ensures transparency in decision-making related to water management and clarifies responsibility in case of problems. Moreover, smart contracts can automate specific responses (e.g., detecting water quality deterioration or leaks) when predefined conditions are met.

WaaS platforms can provide integrated interfaces for citizens to easily access and use various services in smart city environments. Through a single digital wallet, citizens can conveniently access transportation payments, use public facilities, pay utility bills, and apply for administrative services, realizing the ideal of "one-stop public services."

A particularly notable application is "smart mobility". Digital twin-based traffic network models can accurately monitor and predict real-time traffic conditions, while blockchain enables secure data sharing and payment systems among various mobility service providers. Citizens can integrate and use public transport, bike sharing, car sharing, and other mobility services via their WaaS wallets. Token incentive systems built on blockchain can encourage eco-friendly mobility choices, contributing to sustainable urban transportation.

In the energy sector, the combination of digital twins and blockchain is also highly significant. Digital twins allow precise modeling of city energy consumption patterns and production volumes, while blockchain-based P2P energy trading platforms enable direct transactions between small-scale energy producers and consumers. WaaS platforms provide user-friendly interfaces for citizens to participate easily in such energy trading. For example, citizens can sell surplus solar energy to neighbors via blockchain platforms and safely receive payments into their digital wallets.

In urban asset management, the integration of digital twins and blockchain can greatly enhance efficiency and transparency. The real-time status of public facilities is reflected in digital twins, and maintenance histories and responsibility records are immutably stored on the blockchain, strengthening transparency and accountability in asset management. This improves the long-term efficiency of public asset management and enables transparent reporting of how citizens' taxes are utilized.

Promoting the sharing economy is another key synergy area for these technologies. Digital twins can accurately identify the availability and condition of shareable urban resources (spaces, equipment, vehicles, etc.), and blockchain ensures trust and secure transactions in the sharing process. Through WaaS platforms, citizens can easily search for, reserve, use, and pay for shared resources, promoting efficient utilization of city assets and revitalizing local economies.

This integrated public service ecosystem can strengthen citizen participation governance. Through digital twins, citizens can intuitively understand the current state and potential changes in their cities, and through blockchain-based voting and opinion collection systems, actively participate in urban planning and policy-making processes. This contributes to improving transparency in policymaking and citizen acceptance.
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5. Conclusion

Blockchain and WaaS have the potential to transform the paradigm of public services, but their adoption and widespread implementation still face significant challenges. It is crucial to maintain a balance between technological possibilities and practical constraints.

For example, choosing the right type of blockchain network (private, public, consortium) is a key decision in implementing public services. Public blockchains offer high transparency and decentralization but face limitations in processing speed, scalability, and energy efficiency, making them potentially unsuitable for handling sensitive administrative data.

On the other hand, private blockchains offer advantages in speed, scalability, and access control, but require compromises regarding full decentralization and transparency. In the public sector, consortium blockchains, which combine the strengths of both models, are often used; however, issues such as governance structure and participant selection still remain.

Furthermore, blockchain technology still faces limitations in scalability, high energy consumption, and complex user experience. Particularly when applied to large-scale public services, processing speed and capacity can act as realistic obstacles. Challenges such as the lack of legal and institutional frameworks, difficulties integrating with existing legacy systems, and compliance with regulations related to personal information protection must also be addressed. Additionally, blockchain’s immutability feature—especially in public networks—may conflict with requirements like data modification needs or the "right to be forgotten" in privacy regulations.

The digital divide is another critical consideration. Without an inclusive approach ensuring that all citizens can equally access and utilize new technologies, blockchain-based public services could unintentionally create new forms of social exclusion.

Despite these limitations, if blockchain and WaaS are properly designed and implemented, they can make significant contributions to enhancing the quality of public services and innovating governance. What matters is a problem- and citizen-centered approach rather than a technology-driven one, along with the careful selection of blockchain types suitable for each situation.

Ultimately, the successful implementation of blockchain-based public services requires a balanced development of technological innovation, institutional support, and social consensus. Rather than seeking short-term achievements, a gradual and systematic long-term approach is necessary, alongside realistic strategies that recognize and complement the limitations of the technology. Through this, blockchain technology can make meaningful progress toward a transparent and citizen-centric new governance model.